litmus-rt.git - The LITMUS^RT kernel.

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The LITMUS^RT kernel.

Bjoern Brandenburg

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path: root/include/linux/dvb/dmx.h

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Diffstat (limited to 'include/linux/dvb/dmx.h')

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include/linux/dvb/dmx.h

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diff --git a/include/linux/dvb/dmx.h b/include/linux/dvb/dmx.h index fef943738a24..f078f3ac82d4 100644 --- a/include/linux/dvb/dmx.h +++ b/include/linux/dvb/dmx.h
@@ -151,5 +151,7 @@ struct dmx_stc {
151	#define DMX_GET_CAPS _IOR('o', 48, dmx_caps_t)	151	#define DMX_GET_CAPS _IOR('o', 48, dmx_caps_t)
152	#define DMX_SET_SOURCE _IOW('o', 49, dmx_source_t)	152	#define DMX_SET_SOURCE _IOW('o', 49, dmx_source_t)
153	#define DMX_GET_STC _IOWR('o', 50, struct dmx_stc)	153	#define DMX_GET_STC _IOWR('o', 50, struct dmx_stc)
		154	#define DMX_ADD_PID _IOW('o', 51, __u16)
		155	#define DMX_REMOVE_PID _IOW('o', 52, __u16)
154		156
155	#endif /_DVBDMX_H_/	157	#endif /_DVBDMX_H_/

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			 ============================
			 LINUX KERNEL MEMORY BARRIERS
			 ============================

By: David Howells <dhowells@redhat.com>
    Paul E. McKenney <paulmck@linux.vnet.ibm.com>

Contents:

 (*) Abstract memory access model.

     - Device operations.
     - Guarantees.

 (*) What are memory barriers?

     - Varieties of memory barrier.
     - What may not be assumed about memory barriers?
     - Data dependency barriers.
     - Control dependencies.
     - SMP barrier pairing.
     - Examples of memory barrier sequences.
     - Read memory barriers vs load speculation.

 (*) Explicit kernel barriers.

     - Compiler barrier.
     - CPU memory barriers.
     - MMIO write barrier.

 (*) Implicit kernel memory barriers.

     - Locking functions.
     - Interrupt disabling functions.
     - Sleep and wake-up functions.
     - Miscellaneous functions.

 (*) Inter-CPU locking barrier effects.

     - Locks vs memory accesses.
     - Locks vs I/O accesses.

 (*) Where are memory barriers needed?

     - Interprocessor interaction.
     - Atomic operations.
     - Accessing devices.
     - Interrupts.

 (*) Kernel I/O barrier effects.

 (*) Assumed minimum execution ordering model.

 (*) The effects of the cpu cache.

     - Cache coherency.
     - Cache coherency vs DMA.
     - Cache coherency vs MMIO.

 (*) The things CPUs get up to.

     - And then there's the Alpha.

 (*) Example uses.

     - Circular buffers.

 (*) References.


============================
ABSTRACT MEMORY ACCESS MODEL
============================

Consider the following abstract model of the system:

		            :                :
		            :                :
		            :                :
		+-------+   :   +--------+   :   +-------+
		|       |   :   |        |   :   |       |
		|       |   :   |        |   :   |       |
		| CPU 1 |<----->| Memory |<----->| CPU 2 |
		|       |   :   |        |   :   |       |
		|       |   :   |        |   :   |       |
		+-------+   :   +--------+   :   +-------+
		    ^       :       ^        :       ^
		    |       :       |        :       |
		    |       :       |        :       |
		    |       :       v        :       |
		    |       :   +--------+   :       |
		    |       :   |        |   :       |
		    |       :   |        |   :       |
		    +---------->| Device |<----------+
		            :   |        |   :
		            :   |        |   :
		            :   +--------+   :
		            :                :

Each CPU executes a program that generates memory access operations.  In the
abstract CPU, memory operation ordering is very relaxed, and a CPU may actually
perform the memory operations in any order it likes, provided program causality
appears to be maintained.  Similarly, the compiler may also arrange the
instructions it emits in any order it likes, provided it doesn't affect the
apparent operation of the program.

So in the above diagram, the effects of the memory operations performed by a
CPU are perceived by the rest of the system as the operations cross the
interface between the CPU and rest of the system (the dotted lines).


For example, consider the following sequence of events:

	CPU 1		CPU 2
	===============	===============
	{ A == 1; B == 2 }
	A = 3;		x = A;
	B = 4;		y = B;

The set of accesses as seen by the memory system in the middle can be arranged
in 24 different combinations:

	STORE A=3,	STORE B=4,	x=LOAD A->3,	y=LOAD B->4
	STORE A=3,	STORE B=4,	y=LOAD B->4,	x=LOAD A->3
	STORE A=3,	x=LOAD A->3,	STORE B=4,	y=LOAD B->4
	STORE A=3,	x=LOAD A->3,	y=LOAD B->2,	STORE B=4
	STORE A=3,	y=LOAD B->2,	STORE B=4,	x=LOAD A->3
	STORE A=3,	y=LOAD B->2,	x=LOAD A->3,	STORE B=4
	STORE B=4,	STORE A=3,	x=LOAD A->3,	y=LOAD B->4
	STORE B=4, ...
	...

and can thus result in four different combinations of values:

	x == 1, y == 2
	x == 1, y == 4
	x == 3, y == 2
	x == 3, y == 4


Furthermore, the stores committed by a CPU to the memory system may not be
perceived by the loads made by another CPU in the same order as the stores were
committed.


As a further example, consider this sequence of events:

	CPU 1		CPU 2
	===============	===============
	{ A == 1, B == 2, C = 3, P == &A, Q == &C }
	B = 4;		Q = P;
	P = &B		D = *Q;

There is an obvious data dependency here, as the value loaded into D depends on
the address retrieved from P by CPU 2.  At the end of the sequence, any of the
following results are possible:

	(Q == &A) and (D == 1)
	(Q == &B) and (D == 2)
	(Q == &B) and (D == 4)

Note that CPU 2 will never try and load C into D because the CPU will load P
into Q before issuing the load of *Q.


DEVICE OPERATIONS
-----------------

Some devices present their control interfaces as collections of memory
locations, but the order in which the control registers are accessed is very
important.  For instance, imagine an ethernet card with a set of internal
registers that are accessed through an address port register (A) and a data
port register (D).  To read internal register 5, the following code might then
be used:

	*A = 5;
	x = *D;

but this might show up as either of the following two sequences:

	STORE *A = 5, x = LOAD *D
	x = LOAD *D, STORE *A = 5

the second of which will almost certainly result in a malfunction, since it set
the address _after_ attempting to read the register.


GUARANTEES
----------

There are some minimal guarantees that may be expected of a CPU:

 (*) On any given CPU, dependent memory accesses will be issued in order, with
     respect to itself.  This means that for:

	Q = P; D = *Q;

     the CPU will issue the following memory operations:

	Q = LOAD P, D = LOAD *Q

     and always in that order.

 (*) Overlapping loads and stores within a particular CPU will appear to be
     ordered within that CPU.  This means that for:

	a = *X; *X = b;

     the CPU will only issue the following sequence of memory operations:

	a = LOAD *X, STORE *X = b

     And for:

	*X = c; d = *X;

     the CPU will only issue:

	STORE *X = c, d = LOAD *X

     (Loads and stores overlap if they are targeted at overlapping pieces of
     memory).

And there are a number of things that _must_ or _must_not_ be assumed:

 (*) It _must_not_ be assumed that independent loads and stores will be issued
     in the order given.  This means that for:

	X = *A; Y = *B; *D = Z;

     we may get any of the following sequences:

	X = LOAD *A,  Y = LOAD *B,  STORE *D = Z
	X = LOAD *A,  STORE *D = Z, Y = LOAD *B
	Y = LOAD *B,  X = LOAD *A,  STORE *D = Z
	Y = LOAD *B,  STORE *D = Z, X = LOAD *A
	STORE *D = Z, X = LOAD *A,  Y = LOAD *B
	STORE *D = Z, Y = LOAD *B,  X = LOAD *A

 (*) It _must_ be assumed that overlapping memory accesses may be merged or
     discarded.  This means that for:

	X = *A; Y = *(A + 4);

     we may get any one of the following sequences:

	X = LOAD *A; Y = LOAD *(A + 4);
	Y = LOAD *(A + 4); X = LOAD *A;
	{X, Y} = LOAD {*A, *(A + 4) };

     And for:

	*A = X; Y = *A;

     we may get either of:

	STORE *A = X; Y = LOAD *A;
	STORE *A = Y = X;


=========================
WHAT ARE MEMORY BARRIERS?
=========================

As can be seen above, independent memory operations are effectively performed
in random order, but this can be a problem for CPU-CPU interaction and for I/O.
What is required is some way of intervening to instruct the compiler and the
CPU to restrict the order.

Memory barriers are such interventions.  They impose a perceived partial
ordering over the memory operations on either side of the barrier.

Such enforcement is important because the CPUs and other devices in a system
can use a variety of tricks to improve performance, including reordering,
deferral and combination of memory operations; speculative loads; speculative
branch prediction and various types of caching.  Memory barriers are used to
override or suppress these tricks, allowing the code to sanely control the
interaction of multiple CPUs and/or devices.


VARIETIES OF MEMORY BARRIER
---------------------------

Memory barriers come in four basic varieties:

 (1) Write (or store) memory barriers.

     A write memory barrier gives a guarantee that all the STORE operations
     specified before the barrier will appear to happen before all the STORE
     operations specified after the barrier with respect to the other
     components of the system.

     A write barrier is a partial ordering on stores only; it is not required
     to have any effect on loads.

     A CPU can be viewed as committing a sequence of store operations to the
     memory system as time progresses.  All stores before a write barrier will
     occur in the sequence _before_ all the stores after the write barrier.

     [!] Note that write barriers should normally be paired with read or data
     dependency barriers; see the "SMP barrier pairing" subsection.


 (2) Data dependency barriers.

     A data dependency barrier is a weaker form of read barrier.  In the case
     where two loads are performed such that the second depends on the result
     of the first (eg: the first load retrieves the address to which the second
     load will be directed), a data dependency barrier would be required to
     make sure that the target of the second load is updated before the address
     obtained by the first load is accessed.

     A data dependency barrier is a partial ordering on interdependent loads
     only; it is not required to have any effect on stores, independent loads
     or overlapping loads.

     As mentioned in (1), the other CPUs in the system can be viewed as
     committing sequences of stores to the memory system that the CPU being
     considered can then perceive.  A data dependency barrier issued by the CPU
     under consideration guarantees that for any load preceding it, if that
     load touches one of a sequence of stores from another CPU, then by the
     time the barrier completes, the effects of all the stores prior to that
     touched by the load will be perceptible to any loads issued after the data
     dependency barrier.

     See the "Examples of memory barrier sequences" subsection for diagrams
     showing the ordering constraints.

     [!] Note that the first load really has to have a _data_ dependency and
     not a control dependency.  If the address for the second load is dependent
     on the first load, but the dependency is through a conditional rather than
     actually loading the address itself, then it's a _control_ dependency and
     a full read barrier or better is required.  See the "Control dependencies"
     subsection for more information.

     [!] Note that data dependency barriers should normally be paired with
     write barriers; see the "SMP barrier pairing" subsection.


 (3) Read (or load) memory barriers.

     A read barrier is a data dependency barrier plus a guarantee that all the
     LOAD operations specified before the barrier will appear to happen before
     all the LOAD operations specified after the barrier with respect to the
     other components of the system.

     A read barrier is a partial ordering on loads only; it is not required to
     have any effect on stores.

     Read memory barriers imply data dependency barriers, and so can substitute
     for them.

     [!] Note that read barriers should normally be paired with write barriers;
     see the "SMP barrier pairing" subsection.


 (4) General memory barriers.

     A general memory barrier gives a guarantee that all the LOAD and STORE
     operations specified before the barrier will appear to happen before all
     the LOAD and STORE operations specified after the barrier with respect to
     the other components of the system.

     A general memory barrier is a partial ordering over both loads and stores.

     General memory barriers imply both read and write memory barriers, and so
     can substitute for either.


And a couple of implicit varieties:

 (5) LOCK operations.

     This acts as a one-way permeable barrier.  It guarantees that all memory
     operations after the LOCK operation will appear to happen after the LOCK
     operation with respect to the other components of the system.

     Memory operations that occur before a LOCK operation may appear to happen
     after it completes.

     A LOCK operation should almost always be paired with an UNLOCK operation.


 (6) UNLOCK operations.

     This also acts as a one-way permeable barrier.  It guarantees that all
     memory operations before the UNLOCK operation will appear to happen before
     the UNLOCK operation with respect to the other components of the system.

     Memory operations that occur after an UNLOCK operation may appear to
     happen before it completes.

     LOCK and UNLOCK operations are guaranteed to appear with respect to each
     other strictly in the order specified.

     The use of LOCK and UNLOCK operations generally precludes the need for
     other sorts of memory barrier (but note the exceptions mentioned in the
     subsection "MMIO write barrier").


Memory barriers are only required where there's a possibility of interaction
between two CPUs or between a CPU and a device.  If it can be guaranteed that
there won't be any such interaction in any particular piece of code, then
memory barriers are unnecessary in that piece of code.


Note that these are the _minimum_ guarantees.  Different architectures may give
more substantial guarantees, but they may _not_ be relied upon outside of arch
specific code.


WHAT MAY NOT BE ASSUMED ABOUT MEMORY BARRIERS?
----------------------------------------------

There are certain things that the Linux kernel memory barriers do not guarantee:

 (*) There is no guarantee that any of the memory accesses specified before a
     memory barrier will be _complete_ by the completion of a memory barrier
     instruction; the barrier can be considered to draw a line in that CPU's
     access queue that accesses of the appropriate type may not cross.

 (*) There is no guarantee that issuing a memory barrier on one CPU will have
     any direct effect on another CPU or any other hardware in the system.  The
     indirect effect will be the order in which the second CPU sees the effects
     of the first CPU's accesses occur, but see the next point:

 (*) There is no guarantee that a CPU will see the correct order of effects
     from a second CPU's accesses, even _if_ the second CPU uses a memory
     barrier, unless the first CPU _also_ uses a matching memory barrier (see
     the subsection on "SMP Barrier Pairing").

 (*) There is no guarantee that some intervening piece of off-the-CPU
     hardware[*] will not reorder the memory accesses.  CPU cache coherency
     mechanisms should propagate the indirect effects of a memory barrier
     between CPUs, but might not do so in order.

	[*] For information on bus mastering DMA and coherency please read:

	    Documentation/PCI/pci.txt
	    Documentation/PCI/PCI-DMA-mapping.txt
	    Documentation/DMA-API.txt


DATA DEPENDENCY BARRIERS
------------------------

The usage requirements of data dependency barriers are a little subtle, and
it's not always obvious that they're needed.  To illustrate, consider the
following sequence of events:

	CPU 1		CPU 2
	===============	===============
	{ A == 1, B == 2, C = 3, P == &A, Q == &C }
	B = 4;
	<write barrier>
	P = &B
			Q = P;
			D = *Q;

There's a clear data dependency here, and it would seem that by the end of the
sequence, Q must be either &A or &B, and that:

	(Q == &A) implies (D == 1)
	(Q == &B) implies (D == 4)

But!  CPU 2's perception of P may be updated _before_ its perception of B, thus
leading to the following situation:

	(Q == &B) and (D == 2) ????

Whilst this may seem like a failure of coherency or causality maintenance, it
isn't, and this behaviour can be observed on certain real CPUs (such as the DEC
Alpha).

To deal with this, a data dependency barrier or better must be inserted
between the address load and the data load:

	CPU 1		CPU 2
	===============	===============
	{ A == 1, B == 2, C = 3, P == &A, Q == &C }
	B = 4;
	<write barrier>
	P = &B
			Q = P;
			<data dependency barrier>
			D = *Q;

This enforces the occurrence of one of the two implications, and prevents the
third possibility from arising.

[!] Note that this extremely counterintuitive situation arises most easily on
machines with split caches, so that, for example, one cache bank processes
even-numbered cache lines and the other bank processes odd-numbered cache
lines.  The pointer P might be stored in an odd-numbered cache line, and the
variable B might be stored in an even-numbered cache line.  Then, if the
even-numbered bank of the reading CPU's cache is extremely busy while the
odd-numbered bank is idle, one can see the new value of the pointer P (&B),
but the old value of the variable B (2).


Another example of where data dependency barriers might by required is where a
number is read from memory and then used to calculate the index for an array
access:

	CPU 1		CPU 2
	===============	===============
	{ M[0] == 1, M[1] == 2, M[3] = 3, P == 0, Q == 3 }
	M[1] = 4;
	<write barrier>
	P = 1
			Q = P;
			<data dependency barrier>
			D = M[Q];


The data dependency barrier is very important to the RCU system, for example.
See rcu_dereference() in include/linux/rcupdate.h.  This permits the current
target of an RCU'd pointer to be replaced with a new modified target, without
the replacement target appearing to be incompletely initialised.

See also the subsection on "Cache Coherency" for a more thorough example.


CONTROL DEPENDENCIES
--------------------

A control dependency requires a full read memory barrier, not simply a data
dependency barrier to make it work correctly.  Consider the following bit of
code:

	q = &a;
	if (p)
		q = &b;
	<data dependency barrier>
	x = *q;

This will not have the desired effect because there is no actual data
dependency, but rather a control dependency that the CPU may short-circuit by
attempting to predict the outcome in advance.  In such a case what's actually
required is:

	q = &a;
	if (p)
		q = &b;
	<read barrier>
	x = *q;


SMP BARRIER PAIRING
-------------------

When dealing with CPU-CPU interactions, certain types of memory barrier should
always be paired.  A lack of appropriate pairing is almost certainly an error.

A write barrier should always be paired with a data dependency barrier or read
barrier, though a general barrier would also be viable.  Similarly a read
barrier or a data dependency barrier should always be paired with at least an
write barrier, though, again, a general barrier is viable:

	CPU 1		CPU 2
	===============	===============
	a = 1;
	<write barrier>
	b = 2;		x = b;
			<read barrier>
			y = a;

Or:

	CPU 1		CPU 2
	===============	===============================
	a = 1;
	<write barrier>
	b = &a;		x = b;
			<data dependency barrier>
			y = *x;

Basically, the read barrier always has to be there, even though it can be of
the "weaker" type.

[!] Note that the stores before the write barrier would normally be expected to
match the loads after the read barrier or the data dependency barrier, and vice
versa:

	CPU 1                           CPU 2
	===============                 ===============
	a = 1;           }----   --->{  v = c
	b = 2;           }    \ /    {  w = d
	<write barrier>        \        <read barrier>
	c = 3;           }    / \    {  x = a;
	d = 4;           }----   --->{  y = b;


EXAMPLES OF MEMORY BARRIER SEQUENCES
------------------------------------

Firstly, write barriers act as partial orderings on store operations.
Consider the following sequence of events:

	CPU 1
	=======================
	STORE A = 1
	STORE B = 2
	STORE C = 3
	<write barrier>
	STORE D = 4
	STORE E = 5

This sequence of events is committed to the memory coherence system in an order
that the rest of the system might perceive as the unordered set of { STORE A,
STORE B, STORE C } all occurring before the unordered set of { STORE D, STORE E
}:

	+-------+       :      :
	|       |       +------+
	|       |------>| C=3  |     }     /\
	|       |  :    +------+     }-----  \  -----> Events perceptible to
	|       |  :    | A=1  |     }        \/       the rest of the system
	|       |  :    +------+     }
	| CPU 1 |  :    | B=2  |     }
	|       |       +------+     }
	|       |   wwwwwwwwwwwwwwww }   <--- At this point the write barrier
	|       |       +------+     }        requires all stores prior to the
	|       |  :    | E=5  |     }        barrier to be committed before
	|       |  :    +------+     }        further stores may take place
	|       |------>| D=4  |     }
	|       |       +------+
	+-------+       :      :
	                   |
	                   | Sequence in which stores are committed to the
	                   | memory system by CPU 1
	                   V


Secondly, data dependency barriers act as partial orderings on data-dependent
loads.  Consider the following sequence of events:

	CPU 1			CPU 2
	=======================	=======================
		{ B = 7; X = 9; Y = 8; C = &Y }
	STORE A = 1
	STORE B = 2
	<write barrier>
	STORE C = &B		LOAD X
	STORE D = 4		LOAD C (gets &B)
				LOAD *C (reads B)

Without intervention, CPU 2 may perceive the events on CPU 1 in some
effectively random order, despite the write barrier issued by CPU 1:

	+-------+       :      :                :       :
	|       |       +------+                +-------+  | Sequence of update
	|       |------>| B=2  |-----       --->| Y->8  |  | of perception on
	|       |  :    +------+     \          +-------+  | CPU 2
	| CPU 1 |  :    | A=1  |      \     --->| C->&Y |  V
	|       |       +------+       |        +-------+
	|       |   wwwwwwwwwwwwwwww   |        :       :
	|       |       +------+       |        :       :
	|       |  :    | C=&B |---    |        :       :       +-------+
	|       |  :    +------+   \   |        +-------+       |       |
	|       |------>| D=4  |    ----------->| C->&B |------>|       |
	|       |       +------+       |        +-------+       |       |
	+-------+       :      :       |        :       :       |       |
	                               |        :       :       |       |
	                               |        :       :       | CPU 2 |
	                               |        +-------+       |       |
	    Apparently incorrect --->  |        | B->7  |------>|       |
	    perception of B (!)        |        +-------+       |       |
	                               |        :       :       |       |
	                               |        +-------+       |       |
	    The load of X holds --->    \       | X->9  |------>|       |
	    up the maintenance           \      +-------+       |       |
	    of coherence of B             ----->| B->2  |       +-------+
	                                        +-------+
	                                        :       :


In the above example, CPU 2 perceives that B is 7, despite the load of *C
(which would be B) coming after the LOAD of C.

If, however, a data dependency barrier were to be placed between the load of C
and the load of *C (ie: B) on CPU 2:

	CPU 1			CPU 2
	=======================	=======================
		{ B = 7; X = 9; Y = 8; C = &Y }
	STORE A = 1
	STORE B = 2
	<write barrier>
	STORE C = &B		LOAD X
	STORE D = 4		LOAD C (gets &B)
				<data dependency barrier>
				LOAD *C (reads B)

then the following will occur:

	+-------+       :      :                :       :
	|       |       +------+                +-------+
	|       |------>| B=2  |-----       --->| Y->8  |
	|       |  :    +------+     \          +-------+
	| CPU 1 |  :    | A=1  |      \     --->| C->&Y |
	|       |       +------+       |        +-------+
	|       |   wwwwwwwwwwwwwwww   |        :       :
	|       |       +------+       |        :       :
	|       |  :    | C=&B |---    |        :       :       +-------+
	|       |  :    +------+   \   |        +-------+       |       |
	|       |------>| D=4  |    ----------->| C->&B |------>|       |
	|       |       +------+       |        +-------+       |       |
	+-------+       :      :       |        :       :       |       |
	                               |        :       :       |       |
	                               |        :       :       | CPU 2 |
	                               |        +-------+       |       |
	                               |        | X->9  |------>|       |
	                               |        +-------+       |       |
	  Makes sure all effects --->   \   ddddddddddddddddd   |       |
	  prior to the store of C        \      +-------+       |       |
	  are perceptible to              ----->| B->2  |------>|       |
	  subsequent loads                      +-------+       |       |
	                                        :       :       +-------+


And thirdly, a read barrier acts as a partial order on loads.  Consider the
following sequence of events:

	CPU 1			CPU 2
	=======================	=======================
		{ A = 0, B = 9 }
	STORE A=1
	<write barrier>
	STORE B=2
				LOAD B
				LOAD A

Without intervention, CPU 2 may then choose to perceive the events on CPU 1 in
some effectively random order, despite the write barrier issued by CPU 1:

	+-------+       :      :                :       :
	|       |       +------+                +-------+
	|       |------>| A=1  |------      --->| A->0  |
	|       |       +------+      \         +-------+
	| CPU 1 |   wwwwwwwwwwwwwwww   \    --->| B->9  |
	|       |       +------+        |       +-------+
	|       |------>| B=2  |---     |       :       :
	|       |       +------+   \    |       :       :       +-------+
	+-------+       :      :    \   |       +-------+       |       |
	                             ---------->| B->2  |------>|       |
	                                |       +-------+       | CPU 2 |
	                                |       | A->0  |------>|       |
	                                |       +-------+       |       |
	                                |       :       :       +-------+
	                                 \      :       :
	                                  \     +-------+
	                                   ---->| A->1  |
	                                        +-------+
	                                        :       :


If, however, a read barrier were to be placed between the load of B and the
load of A on CPU 2:

	CPU 1			CPU 2
	=======================	=======================
		{ A = 0, B = 9 }
	STORE A=1
	<write barrier>
	STORE B=2
				LOAD B
				<read barrier>
				LOAD A

then the partial ordering imposed by CPU 1 will be perceived correctly by CPU
2:

	+-------+       :      :                :       :
	|       |       +------+                +-------+
	|       |------>| A=1  |------      --->| A->0  |
	|       |       +------+      \         +-------+
	| CPU 1 |   wwwwwwwwwwwwwwww   \    --->| B->9  |
	|       |       +------+        |       +-------+
	|       |------>| B=2  |---     |       :       :
	|       |       +------+   \    |       :       :       +-------+
	+-------+       :      :    \   |       +-------+       |       |
	                             ---------->| B->2  |------>|       |
	                                |       +-------+       | CPU 2 |
	                                |       :       :       |       |
	                                |       :       :       |       |
	  At this point the read ---->   \  rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr   |       |
	  barrier causes all effects      \     +-------+       |       |
	  prior to the storage of B        ---->| A->1  |------>|       |
	  to be perceptible to CPU 2            +-------+       |       |
	                                        :       :       +-------+


To illustrate this more completely, consider what could happen if the code
contained a load of A either side of the read barrier:

	CPU 1			CPU 2
	=======================	=======================
		{ A = 0, B = 9 }
	STORE A=1
	<write barrier>
	STORE B=2
				LOAD B
				LOAD A [first load of A]
				<read barrier>
				LOAD A [second load of A]

Even though the two loads of A both occur after the load of B, they may both
come up with different values:

	+-------+       :      :                :       :
	|       |       +------+                +-------+
	|       |------>| A=1  |------      --->| A->0  |
	|       |       +------+      \         +-------+
	| CPU 1 |   wwwwwwwwwwwwwwww   \    --->| B->9  |
	|       |       +------+        |       +-------+
	|       |------>| B=2  |---     |       :       :
	|       |       +------+   \    |       :       :       +-------+
	+-------+       :      :    \   |       +-------+       |       |
	                             ---------->| B->2  |------>|       |
	                                |       +-------+       | CPU 2 |
	                                |       :       :       |       |
	                                |       :       :       |       |
	                                |       +-------+       |       |
	                                |       | A->0  |------>| 1st   |
	                                |       +-------+       |       |
	  At this point the read ---->   \  rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr   |       |
	  barrier causes all effects      \     +-------+       |       |
	  prior to the storage of B        ---->| A->1  |------>| 2nd   |
	  to be perceptible to CPU 2            +-------+       |       |
	                                        :       :       +-------+


But it may be that the update to A from CPU 1 becomes perceptible to CPU 2
before the read barrier completes anyway:

	+-------+       :      :                :       :
	|       |       +------+                +-------+
	|       |------>| A=1  |------      --->| A->0  |
	|       |       +------+      \         +-------+
	| CPU 1 |   wwwwwwwwwwwwwwww   \    --->| B->9  |
	|       |       +------+        |       +-------+
	|       |------>| B=2  |---     |       :       :
	|       |       +------+   \    |       :       :       +-------+
	+-------+       :      :    \   |       +-------+       |       |
	                             ---------->| B->2  |------>|       |
	                                |       +-------+       | CPU 2 |
	                                |       :       :       |       |
	                                 \      :       :       |       |
	                                  \     +-------+       |       |
	                                   ---->| A->1  |------>| 1st   |
	                                        +-------+       |       |
	                                    rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr   |       |
	                                        +-------+       |       |
	                                        | A->1  |------>| 2nd   |
	                                        +-------+       |       |
	                                        :       :       +-------+


The guarantee is that the second load will always come up with A == 1 if the
load of B came up with B == 2.  No such guarantee exists for the first load of
A; that may come up with either A == 0 or A == 1.


READ MEMORY BARRIERS VS LOAD SPECULATION
----------------------------------------

Many CPUs speculate with loads: that is they see that they will need to load an
item from memory, and they find a time where they're not using the bus for any
other loads, and so do the load in advance - even though they haven't actually
got to that point in the instruction execution flow yet.  This permits the
actual load instruction to potentially complete immediately because the CPU
already has the value to hand.

It may turn out that the CPU didn't actually need the value - perhaps because a
branch circumvented the load - in which case it can discard the value or just
cache it for later use.

Consider:

	CPU 1	   		CPU 2
	=======================	=======================
	 	   		LOAD B
	 	   		DIVIDE		} Divide instructions generally
	 	   		DIVIDE		} take a long time to perform
	 	   		LOAD A

Which might appear as this:

	                                        :       :       +-------+
	                                        +-------+       |       |
	                                    --->| B->2  |------>|       |
	                                        +-------+       | CPU 2 |
	                                        :       :DIVIDE |       |
	                                        +-------+       |       |
	The CPU being busy doing a --->     --->| A->0  |~~~~   |       |
	division speculates on the              +-------+   ~   |       |
	LOAD of A                               :       :   ~   |       |
	                                        :       :DIVIDE |       |
	                                        :       :   ~   |       |
	Once the divisions are complete -->     :       :   ~-->|       |
	the CPU can then perform the            :       :       |       |
	LOAD with immediate effect              :       :       +-------+


Placing a read barrier or a data dependency barrier just before the second
load:

	CPU 1	   		CPU 2
	=======================	=======================
	 	   		LOAD B
	 	   		DIVIDE
	 	   		DIVIDE
				<read barrier>
	 	   		LOAD A

will force any value speculatively obtained to be reconsidered to an extent
dependent on the type of barrier used.  If there was no change made to the
speculated memory location, then the speculated value will just be used:

	                                        :       :       +-------+
	                                        +-------+       |       |
	                                    --->| B->2  |------>|       |
	                                        +-------+       | CPU 2 |
	                                        :       :DIVIDE |       |
	                                        +-------+       |       |
	The CPU being busy doing a --->     --->| A->0  |~~~~   |       |
	division speculates on the              +-------+   ~   |       |
	LOAD of A                               :       :   ~   |       |
	                                        :       :DIVIDE |       |
	                                        :       :   ~   |       |
	                                        :       :   ~   |       |
	                                    rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr~   |       |
	                                        :       :   ~   |       |
	                                        :       :   ~-->|       |
	                                        :       :       |       |
	                                        :       :       +-------+


but if there was an update or an invalidation from another CPU pending, then
the speculation will be cancelled and the value reloaded:

	                                        :       :       +-------+
	                                        +-------+       |       |
	                                    --->| B->2  |------>|       |
	                                        +-------+       | CPU 2 |
	                                        :       :DIVIDE |       |
	                                        +-------+       |       |
	The CPU being busy doing a --->     --->| A->0  |~~~~   |       |
	division speculates on the              +-------+   ~   |       |
	LOAD of A                               :       :   ~   |       |
	                                        :       :DIVIDE |       |
	                                        :       :   ~   |       |
	                                        :       :   ~   |       |
	                                    rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr   |       |
	                                        +-------+       |       |
	The speculation is discarded --->   --->| A->1  |------>|       |
	and an updated value is                 +-------+       |       |
	retrieved                               :       :       +-------+


========================
EXPLICIT KERNEL BARRIERS
========================

The Linux kernel has a variety of different barriers that act at different
levels:

  (*) Compiler barrier.

  (*) CPU memory barriers.

  (*) MMIO write barrier.


COMPILER BARRIER
----------------

The Linux kernel has an explicit compiler barrier function that prevents the
compiler from moving the memory accesses either side of it to the other side:

	barrier();

This is a general barrier - lesser varieties of compiler barrier do not exist.

The compiler barrier has no direct effect on the CPU, which may then reorder
things however it wishes.


CPU MEMORY BARRIERS
-------------------

The Linux kernel has eight basic CPU memory barriers:

	TYPE		MANDATORY		SMP CONDITIONAL
	===============	=======================	===========================
	GENERAL		mb()			smp_mb()
	WRITE		wmb()			smp_wmb()
	READ		rmb()			smp_rmb()
	DATA DEPENDENCY	read_barrier_depends()	smp_read_barrier_depends()


All memory barriers except the data dependency barriers imply a compiler
barrier. Data dependencies do not impose any additional compiler ordering.

Aside: In the case of data dependencies, the compiler would be expected to
issue the loads in the correct order (eg. `a[b]` would have to load the value
of b before loading a[b]), however there is no guarantee in the C specification
that the compiler may not speculate the value of b (eg. is equal to 1) and load
a before b (eg. tmp = a[1]; if (b != 1) tmp = a[b]; ). There is also the
problem of a compiler reloading b after having loaded a[b], thus having a newer
copy of b than a[b]. A consensus has not yet been reached about these problems,


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